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The IEEE 802.3ad Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP) negotiates a set of aggregable links with the peer into one or more Link Aggregated Groups (LAGs).Each LAG is composed of ports of the same speed, set to full-duplex operation, and traffic is balanced across the ports in the LAG with the greatest total speed.Typically, there is only one LAG which contains all the ports.In the event of changes in physical connectivity, LACP will quickly converge to a new configuration.
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WPA-PSK is vulnerable to brute force attack. Tools like Aircrack and coWPAtty take advantage of this weakness and provided a way to test keys against dictionaries. The problem is that it's a very slow process. Precomputational attacks are limited as the BSSID and the BSSID length are seeded into the passphrase hash. This is why WPA-PSK attacks are generally limited due by time. There is no difference between cracking WPA or WPA2, the authentication is essentially the same.
For cracking WPA/WPA2 pre-shared keys, only a dictionary method is used. SSE2 support is included to dramatically speed up WPA/WPA2 key processing. A \"four-way handshake\" is required as input. For WPA handshakes, a full handshake is composed of four packets. However, Aircrack-ng is able to work successfully with just 2 packets. EAPOL packets (2 and 3) or packets (3 and 4) are considered a full handshake.
Electromagnetic methods such as eddy current, magnetic particle or radiographic and ultrasonic methods all introduce electromagnetic or sound waves into the inspected material in order to extract its properties. Penetrant liquid techniques can detect cracks in the test material by using either fluorescent or non-fluorescent dyes. In addition to these methods, scientists such as Shujuan et al. [2], Noorian et al. [3] and Aliouane et al. [4] have researched non-destructive testing based on a combination of electromagnetic and sound waves using electromagnetic acoustic transducers, best known as EMATs.
The principle of the eddy current technique is based on the interaction between a magnetic field source and the test material. This interaction induces eddy currents in the test piece [1]. Scientists can detect the presence of very small cracks by monitoring changes in the eddy current flow [5].
This paper reviews non-destructive eddy current techniques that permit high-speed testing [6] of up to 150 m/s [7] under harsh operating conditions where other techniques cannot be used. Eddy current testing is especially fast at automatically inspecting semi-finished products such as wires, bars, tubes or profiles in production lines. The results of eddy current testing are practically instantaneous, whereas other techniques such as liquid penetrant testing or optical inspection require time-consuming procedures that make it impossible [8], even if desired, to inspect all production.
Eddy current testing permits crack detection in a large variety of conductive materials, either ferromagnetic or non-ferromagnetic, whereas other non-destructive techniques such as the magnetic particle method are limited to ferromagnetic metals. Another advantage of the eddy current method over other techniques is that inspection can be implemented without any direct physical contact between the sensor and the inspected piece.
When a crack is present in the test piece, it obstructs the eddy current flow, as Figure 2(b) illustrates. There is a displacement from P1 or P2. This causes the eddy current path to become longer, and the secondary magnetic field from the eddy currents is reduced. In conclusion, the real part of impedance Rcn+crack, which is related to eddy current dissipation, decreases Rcn > Rcn+crack, In addition to that, the sum of the primary magnetic field and secondary magnetic field increases, which means that the inductive part of impedance Xcn+crack increases Xcn < Xcn+crack.
Highly conductive materials such as cooper and aluminum create intense eddy currents and have two advantages over less conductive materials. First, cracks generate higher signal levels, as the impedance plane in Figure 2(a) illustrates. In addition to that, the phase lag between the flaws and lift-off line is larger when highly conductive materials are tested, that is φ1 > φ2 as Figure 2(a) shows. The disadvantage of highly conductive materials is that the standard penetration depth is lower at a fixed frequency than in lower conductive materials such as steel and stainless steel. Factors that exert an influence in conductivity are the temperature of the test piece, the alloy composition and the residual stress, which is related to the atomic structure.
The disadvantage of inspecting magnetic materials is that permeability changes generally have a much greater effect on eddy current response than conductivity variations. This heterogeneity means that crack detection is not possible when permeability changes randomly. The equalization of the permeability is often related to how the test piece was manufactured [28]. The heterogeneity of permeability for cast iron is stronger than that of carbon steel [28].
In contrast to the conventional eddy-current instrument, pulsed instruments generate square, triangular or a saw tooth waveform [44]. These waveforms have a broad spectrum of frequencies; hence, pulsed eddy current testing techniques provide more information than traditional eddy current testing methods that can be used for the detection and characterization of hidden corrosion and cracking [45]. The data at different frequencies can be correlated to obtain the defect depth.
These types of sensors are used in flat surface inspection. The eddy currents on the test piece are circumferences parallel to the surface as Figure 18(a) illustrates. When a penetrating crack occurs on the surface, current flow is strongly altered and the crack can be detected. Pancake-type coil probes are not suitable for detecting laminar flaws as currents flow parallel to the surface and they are not strongly distorted.
On the one hand, the forward solution consists in predicting the impedance or voltage of the eddy-current probe coil when the cracked piece is tested by a probe [64]. Some authors have published models for obtaining the forward solution. For instance, Skarlatos et al. presented a model to solve the forward problem in cracked ferromagnetic metal tubes [58]. Others like La et al. proposed a parametric model to estimate the impedance change caused by a flaw using the electromagnetic quasi-static approach [64]. Bowler et al. solved the harmonic functions of the Laplace equation to calculate the impedance change of the excitation coil inspecting aluminum and steel [65].
Some authors such as Jongwoo et al have researched eddy current testing using Hall-effect sensors. They presented a quantitative eddy current evaluation of cracks on austenite stainless steel using a Hall-effect sensor array [69].
High functioning eddy current instruments provide higher data processing capability and more physical channels than basic instruments. The top ten instruments permit hot wire testing at production speeds of up to 150 m/s, providing very high spatial resolution, as seen in the system represented in Figure 29(b). They also allow network integration in the production process and multi-frequency operation bands for calibration and testing [60]. Many top-ten instruments provide several USB 2.0 interfaces, Ethernet interfaces and printer connections to generate hard copies of test results. High-end eddy current instruments have more opto-isolated interfaces than basic instruments, up to 128 inputs and outputs for connecting a PLC to control automatic systems. Unlimited configurations can be stored on and loaded from hard disks [59].
Modern instruments generate frequencies in the range from kHz to MHz and permit the application of discrete signal processing, such as filtering and numerical demodulation. Many modern instruments include the impedance on XY plotters and also the X and the Y plot vs. time on LCD screens (or computer monitors if they are computer-enabled). Alarm settings on XY plotters permit users to activate programmable outputs that can activate light and sound alarms to alert the operator when cracks are present [75]. Instruments permit automatic scanning which activates automatic mechanisms to sort flawed pieces or activates paint markers. They also offer very high test speeds that can reduce the occurrence of human errors [76].
Eddy current testing has many applications as a method of crack detection. The aeronautical and nuclear industries have invested many resources in the development eddy current testing. Authors such as Morozov et al. [10] and Thollon et al. [15] have worked with eddy current testing in the field of aeronautics. Others like Chen et al. and La et al. have used eddy current testing to research steam generator tubes in the nuclear industry [64,79].
In the metallurgical industry, authors such as Stander et al. have conducted research testing green-state powdered materials [61]. Manufacturers also offer special solutions for extra fine wires of tungsten and molybdenum testing up to 10 m/s [60]. In the field of transportation, researchers such as Pohl et al. have proposed railroad track surface testing at train speeds of 70 km/h [14].
In the field of hot eddy current testing, the inspection of different types of bars and profiles at temperatures of up to 1,200 C can be performed using water-cooled probes [59,75]. This kind of inspection at high temperatures is useful for detecting these defects at an early stage before significant amounts of faulty material have been produced [75]. Testing of hot-wire line presents several difficulties such as low fill factor due to water cooling between the hot wire and the encircling coil and the necessity of high-speed data processing due to the very high speed of the line [6]. Eddy current testing is the only automated non-destructive test method capable of getting quality results at up to 150 m/s [7]. 153554b96e
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